Table 1 Comparison of soil physicochemical properties between push–pull and maize-monoculture cropping systems in smallholder farmer fields

pH (H₂O)

5.673 ± 0.071^a

4.938 ± 0.099^b

36.580

< 0.001

EC (mmhos/cm)

0.081 ± 0.016^a

0.051 ± 0.011^a

2.329

> 0.144

P (mg/kg)

22.999 ± 5.024^a

16.647 ± 2.233^b

1.335

< 0.001

K (mg/kg)

91.981 ± 7.631^a

83.324 ± 11.124^a

0.412

> 0.412

Na (mg/kg)

9.699 ± 0.187^a

9.691 ± 0.253546^a

0.001

> 0.980

Ca (mg/kg)

808.180 ± 123.026^a

802.239 ± 130.529^a

0.001

> 0.974

Mg (mg/kg)

137.299 ± 18.709^a

136.470 ± 19.357^a

0.001

> 0.976

Fe (mg/kg)

110.892 ± 8.929^a

104.926 ± 13.713^a

0.133

> 0.721

Mn (mg/kg)

208.095 ± 33.248^a

180.074 ± 29.832^a

0.393

> 0.538

Cu (mg/kg)

2.552 ± 0.429^a

1.978 ± 0.253^a

1.330

> 1.332

Mo (mg/kg)

0.020 ± 0.001^a

0.020 ± 0.001^a

2.250

> 0.151

Zn (mg/kg)

3.585 ± 0.649^a

3.665 ± 1.121^a

0.004

> 0.954

B (mg/kg)

1.425 ± 0.012^b

1.458 ± 0.010^a

4.453

< 0.010

S (mg/kg)

11.325 ± 1.376^a

8.810 ± 1.069^a

2.083

> 0.166

N (%)

0.146 ± 0.009^a

0.068 ± 0.013^b

23.400

< 0.001

OC (%)

1.319 ± 0.132^a

0.693 ± 0.146^b

10.170

< 0.001

EA (meq/100 g)

1.180 ± 0.131^a

1.060 ± 0.109^a

0.498

> 0.489

ESP (%)

0.972 ± 0.166^a

0.927 ± 0.126^a

0.046

> 0.832