Fig. 2

Biological effects of fungal EVs on fungal pathogenicity and host–pathogen interactions. As an important medium of intercellular communication, fungal EVs can mediate both fungal cell–cell communication and host–pathogen interactions. Biofilm EVs carrying biological molecules are involved in biofilm generation and resistance in C. albicans [30]. C. gattii EVs mediate the virulence of neighboring fungal cells [15]. C. neoformans EVs contain glucuronoxylomannan (GXM) and exert both immunosuppressive and cytotoxic effects on immune cells [107,108,109,110]. MicroRNAs are significant constituents of EVs in C. albicans and C. neoformans and modulate the gene expression in host cells [113]. EVs modulate the phagocytosis index and induce cytokine production by macrophages in C. neoformans [117]. In A. flavus, EVs induce M1 polarization of macrophages [17]. C. albicans EVs activate dendritic cells (DCs) for antigen presentation and cytokine secretion [54]