Fig. 1

Schematic diagram of fungal extracellular vesicle (EV) biogenesis. Fungal EV biogenesis is regulated by multiple secretory regulators, including Golgi apparatus secretory pathways, ESCRT machinery and other biogenesis regulators. EVs may also be derived from vesicle-containing vacuoles in C. neoformans [21]. Mutant cells lacking the Golgi reassembly and stacking protein (GRASP) and autophagy-related protein 7 (Atg7) exhibit altered EV size in C. neoformans [26]. Mutation in acyl coenzyme A-binding protein (ACBP) in D. discoideum [28] and S. cerevisiae [29] indicate a reduction in components of EVs. Mutation in SEC4 gene alter the production of vesicles in S. cerevisiae [20]. SEC6 gene suppression decreases the secretion of virulence-related molecules into EVs of C. neoformans [25]. ESCRT sub-units, Snf7 and Vps23, influence EV proteins in S. cerevisiae [20]. ESCRT sub-units, Hse1 and Vps27, influence biofilm EV formation in C. albicans [30]. Deletion of APT1 gene encoding lipid flippase influences the size of EVs and EV-based export of soluble GXM in C. neoformans [32, 33]. Attachment of monoclonal antibodies targeting Hsp60 to H. capsulatum fungal cells alters the EV cargo and release [43, 44]. EE-early endosome; LE-late endosome; Aph-autophagosome; MVB-multivesicular body