Table 2 Previous study findings on the isolation of Nematophagus fungi

Niu XM and Zhang KQ

A model organism for understanding the interaction between fungi and nematodes

Arthrobotrys oligospora is the most common nematode-trapping fungus with the characteristic ability to form adhesive trapping nets once in contact with nematodes

Gray NF

Nematophagous fungi with particular reference to their ecology

Hyphomycetes is formed a complex three-dimensional adhesive network. With 35 species known, it is frequently encountered in nearly all types of soil

The effect of the major soil variables such as soil moisture, organic matter, pH, nematode density, soil nutrients, and metals on the distribution of nematophagous fungi are proved

Saumell CA, et al

Nematophagous fungi from decomposing cattle feces in Argentina

Seventeen species from nine genera of nematophagous fungi are identified

Twelve and three species are nematode-trapping fungi and endoparasitic fungi respectively

Arthrobotrys conoides, Arthrobotrys oligospora, Duddingtonia flagrans, Monacrosporium doedycoides, Arthrobotrys robusta, and Drechmeria coniospora are the most frequently isolated species

Hao, Y et al

Ecology of aquatic nematode-trapping hyphomycetes in southwestern China

No species are isolated from the 20 samples collected from the bottom of Dianchi Lake, but from 980 samples 35 species are isolated, 21 of which are of the genus Monacrosporium, 8 are Arthrobotrys, and 6 are Dactylella

The most common isolated species are Arthrobotrys musiformis, A. oligospora, Monacrosporium ellipsosporum, and M. thaumasium, which are isolated from 17, 18, 13, and 15 sites, respectively. A. conoides is the dominant species in Baoshan; A. musiformis is the dominant species in GeJiu and JingHong; A. oligospora was the dominant species in BaoShan, LanPing, Dianchi Lake and Panlong River; M. ellipsosporum was the dominant species in Wen- Shan and SiMao; and M. megalosporum is the dominant species in Lotus Pool. Of the 35 species, 17 produced adhesive networks, which amounted to 48.6% of the total isolated aquatic nematode-trapping hyphomycetes

Swe, A. et al

Nematode-trapping fungi from Arthrobotrys mangrove habitats

Seventeen nematode-trapping fungal species are identified from 480 composite samples at eight different mangrove sites

The most common species in mangroves were

Monacrosporium thaumasium, A. oligospora and Monacrosporium eudermatum,

Twenty-four nematode-trapping fungal species are isolated from 540 composite samples collected at nine different terrestrial sites. The most common species are A. oligospora, Arthrobotrys musiformis, and M. thaumasium

Twenty nematode-trapping fungal species are isolated from 300 composite samples collected from five different rivers and streams. The most common species were M. eudermatum, A. oligospora, M. thaumasium, and Arthrobotrys musiformis

Thirty-one nematode-trapping are isolated, which consists of 13 Arthrobotrys, 15 Monacrosporium, and 3 Dactylella species. Twenty-six species were rare

Twenty-nine of the species reported in the present study are new to Hong Kong. Seventeen species isolated from mangrove are new from marine habitats

Shams Ghahfarokhi M. et al

Isolation and Characterization of the Nematode-Trapping Fungus Arthrobotrys oligospora

11 nematophagous fungi are isolated from 150 pasture soil samples based on the observation of characteristic conidia and traps around the immobilized larvae. From these, 3 pure cultures were made and identified as A. oligospora

A. oligospora and D. flagrans kill the third-stage larvae of H. contortus at a concentration of 20 × 10³ onidia/g feces

Durand, D.T et al

Survey of nematophagous fungi in South Africa

Five isolates of D. flagrans and 73 isolates of other nematophagous fungi were obtained from 384 cultures of soil, feces, compost, leaf litter, and aqueous suspensions of infective larvae contaminated with unidentified fungi

The most common nematophagous fungus isolated is Arthrobotrys oligospora

The other nematophagous fungi isolated were Arthrobotrys superba, Arthrobotrys dactyloides, Arthrobotrys botryospora, Arthrobotrys scaphoides and Monacrosporium gephyropagum

Two isolates of D. flagrans are isolated from compost and three from leaf litter

Farrell, F.C. et al

The nematode-trapping fungus Arthrobotrys oligospora in soil of the Bodega marine reserve: distribution and dependence on nematode parasitized moth larvae

A. oligospora is detected in 39 of 42 lupine samples and 32 of 42 nonlupine samples

Nematode-trapping fungi detected in the laboratory experiment included those that form adhesive networks (A. eudermata, A. musiformis, A. paucispora), adhesive branches (G. gephyropagum), constricting rings (D. doedycoides), and adhesive knobs (N. concurrens); population densities of these fungi did not exceed 39 propagules per g of soil in any arena or 5 propagules per g of soil for any treatment

Wachira, P.M. et al

Influence of land use and soil management practices on the occurrence of nematode destroying fungi in Taita Taveta, Kenya

Organic inputs (cow manure and chicken manure) significantly affected the occurrence of nematode destroying fungi in the study area. Inorganic inputs (chemical fertilizers and pesticides) did not show any effect on the occurrence of nematode destroying fungi

Land use significantly affected the occurrence of nematode destroying fungi. The land use explained 63.73% of the observed absence or presence of nematode

All the isolates of nematode-trapping

fungi were twenty-eight in number and after

identification they were grouped into three genera, Arthrobotrys, Monacrosporium, and Nematoctonus. The genus Arthrobotrys is isolated in all the land uses except in fallow. The genus Monacrosporium is isolated in four land uses; vegetables maize, Napier, and fallow while Nematoctonus occurred only in maize bean. A. oligospora, A.dactyloides,

M.cionapoagum, Monacrosporium sp Nematoctononus sp occurred in frequencies of 42.9, 28.6, 17.9, 7.1, and 3.6% respectively

A.oligospora formed adhesive nets, non-constricting rings, and three-dimensional structures which caught nematodes and consumed them within twelve hours

The number of traps increased with an increased number of nematodes reaching the highest pick on the eighth day, which also increased the number of trapped nematodes

Wairimu WJ. et al

Diversity of naturally occurring nematode destroying fungi and their interaction with soil amendments in banana farms in Meru and Embu counties

Fifty-eight isolates of nematode destroying fungi, distributed in five genera and six taxa were identified in this study. The species Arthrobotrys oligospora (Fresen), A. dactyloides (Drechsler), Monacropsporium cionopagum (Subramanian), Meria coniospora (Drechsler), Dactyllela lobata (Duddington), and Harposporium aungullilae (Lohde) are identified. All the nematode destroying fungi are significantly affected by the ecological zone. The lower zone had a mean occurrence of nematode destroying fungi of 2.8, with 1.8 and 1.2 being recorded in middle and high zones, respectively. The lower zone represented 48.3% of the total nematode destroying fungi. Out of all the isolates obtained, 48.3% are from the lower zone

Monacrosporium cionopagum was the most frequently isolated species of nematode destroying fungi while Harposporium aungulliale is the last one

Yang, Y et al

Evolution of nematode-trapping cells of predatory fungi of the Orbiliaceae based on evidence from rRNA-encoding DNA and multiprotein sequences

Phylogenetic Relationship of Trapping Devices

Cladograms based on parsimony analyses of nucleotide sequences of rDNA ITS regions and the combined data set of four genes (ITS, bt, rpb, and ef1-α) revealed similar topological structures

The ML tree based on the combined data set of 2,706 bp provided more detailed information [high bootstrap values as assessed by 1,000 minimal evolution (ME) bootstrap replications] than the trees based on rDNA in the ITS region and revealed distinctive signatures that were diagnostic for different trapping devices. The data resulted in two main clades representing two different trapping mechanisms (adhesive and nonadhesive). The nonadhesive clade [98% bootstrap support value (BSV)] consists of species with CR and was paraphyletically evolved with the adhesive clade, including trapping of a knob, stalked knob, hyphal column, NCR, and network. The evolution of the adhesive trapping structures with the same trapping mechanism was resolved with the combined data-set tree. Two subclades corresponding to the AN (100% BSV). and other adhesive structures (63% BSV) were strongly supported. AC, AK, and AK associated with NCR grouped in the same subclade, suggesting their close phylogenetic relationship

Phylogenetic Relationship of Adhesive Trapping Devices

In the subclade of AK and column-trapping devices, eight strains forming AC clustered into one group with a 98% BSV and diverged from the other adhesive trapping devices. The species forming sessile or short-stalked knobs (Dactylellina parvicollis, Dactylellina phymatopaga, Dactylellina querci, Dactylellina haptospora, and Dactylellina tibetensis), representing the primitive character states, were separated early from other species. The species forming adhesive short-stalked (Dactylellina drechsleri, Dactylellina entomopaga, Dactylellina mammillata, and Dactylellina ellipsospora) comprised a subgroup with a 78% BSV. Species with long stalked knobs (Dactylellina copepodii, Dactylellina haptotyla, and Dactylellina leptospora) were associated with NCR and are clustered into the other subgroup with a 70% BSV

Ancestral State Reconstruction

Six characters (five trapping device types and no traps), each with two states (present, absent), were calculated by tracing all changes, and a tree with a tree length of 8 was generated. The evolution of the CR went through two stages. One was the formation of the stalks, and the other was the formation of the rings. During the evolution of the adhesive traps, each trap got one change from its ancestor. The primogenitor of the trapping device first obtained an adhesive strategy and formed AN. Afterward, the evolution focused on covering one specialized cell (sessile knob or protuberance) with adhesive materials. The protuberance proliferated to form the AC. The sessile knob developed an extended stalk to form stalked knob, and some species reproduced several adhesive cells, which might be the origination of NCR

Jafee BA et al

Wood, nematodes, and the nematode-trapping fungus Arthrobotryes oligospora

Wood mass loss (decomposition) on agar is enhanced when both large numbers of nematodes S. glaseri and fungus A. oligospora are added

Wood mass loss in the soil is affected by the addition of KNO3

Elshafie, A.E. et al

Diversity and trapping efficiency of nematophagous fungi from Oman

A survey of the nematophagous mycobiota biodiversity of 82 soil and leaf-litter samples in the Sultanate of Oman yielded ten species of nematode-trapping fungi belonging to three genera. The species are: Arthrobotrys eudermata, A. thaumasia, A. musiformis, A. oligospora, A. oligospora var. oligospora, A. oudemansii, A. multiformis,

A. javanica, Drechslerella brochopaga and Gamsylella geophyropaga

Mo M.H et al

Diversity and metal tolerance of nematode-trapping fungi in Pb-polluted soils

The diversity of nematode-trapping fungi (NTF) in two lead (Pb) mines in Yunnan Province, China was investigated in 2004. In total, 20 species belonging to five genera are identified from 500 samples collected at the Lanping and the Huize mines. Pb concentrations ranged from 216–7,150 mg/kg for the former and 132–13,380 mg/kg for the latter, respectively. The fungi are divided into five groups based on different trapping mechanisms. The trapping-net producer group contained the largest number of species, with nine. Two predators, Dactylellina ellipsosporum and Arthrobotrys oligospora, were found at frequencies of 32.85% and 15.41%, respectively. The diversity indexes of NTF were positively correlated with Pb pollution levels in both the Lanping Mine (r = 0.66) and the Huize Mine (r = 0.72. For most strains of a given species, there was no significant difference (P > 0.01) in the Pb tolerance between the strains isolated from habitats with low or high Pb concentrations

Xiang, M et al

Effect of environment on the aboundance and the activity of the nematophagous fungi Hirsutella Minnesotensis in soil

Effect of soil moisture

The quantity of H. minnesotensis DNA in the soil as determined by real-time PCR was highest at 5 and 10 °C, sharply declined between 10 and 15 °C, gradually declined between 15 and 20 °C, and did not change from 20 to 30 °C. Hirsutella minnesotensis is not detected by real-time PCR in soil tubes that were not inoculated with the fungus

Influence of soil texture

There were no significant differences in the percentage of parasitized J2 in the native soil, in soil amended with 10–70% fine soil particles, and in soil amended with 10% sand (P = 0.083), whereas the percentage of parasitized J2 decreased with the increase of sand in the soils (30%, 50%, 70% sand added) (P < 0.001). In contrast, the quantity of H. minnesotensis DNA was highest in the native soil, and in soil amended with 30%, 50%, and 70% fine soil particles (P = 0.359). Increasing the ratio of silicon dioxide sand to native soil resulted in a dramatic decline in the quantity of H. minnesotensis DNA and H. minnesotensis parasitic activity. However, the addition of 10% fine soil particles to the soil decreased the quantity of DNA but not the activity of the fungus relative to the native soil. Decreasing the ratio of fine soil particles to native soil from 70 to 10% reduced the quantity of DNA but not the parasitic activity