Fig. 3

Schematic model of the mechanism of ROS production and antioxidation during infection with IVs. During the life cycle of the IV, infection causes oxidative stress reactions in host cells, which leads to induction of Nox1/Nox4 and AhR and the production of ROS, followed by replication of the viruses. Nrf2 and other signaling molecules, such as p38, AKT, and PI3K, are also involved in ROS stress and redox control. Oxidative stress also induces the translocation of the AhR transcription factor to the ER and mitochondria (MIT), which increases ROS production. The antioxidation against ROS by the Nrf2 transcription factor helps to prevent cell damage during the initial phase; however, the excess of ROS causes apoptosis and other types of cellular death in infected host cells. The life cycle of IVs is summarized and the possible targets of drugs to treat IV infection are also indicated.